Flour is a powder which is made by grinding cereal grains or other seeds or roots. It is the main ingredient of bread, which is a staple food for many cultures. Wheat flour is one of the most important ingredients in Oceanic, European, North American, Middle Eastern, Indian and North African cultures, and is the defining ingredient in most of their styles of bread and pastries.

Major Categories of Flour

1.Unbleached Flour

Unbleached flour is simply flour that has not undergone bleaching and therefore does not have the colour of “white” flour.

2.Bleached Flour

“Refined flour” has had the germ and bran removed and is typically referred to as “white flour”. “Bleached flour” is any refined flour with a whitening agent added.

3.Plain Flour

Flour that does not have a leavening agent is called plain or all-purpose flour. It is appropriate for most bread and pizza bases. Some biscuits are also prepared using this type of flour. Bread flour is high in gluten protein, with 12.5-14% protein compared to 10-12% protein in all-purpose flour. The increased protein binds to the flour to entrap carbon dioxide released by the yeast fermentation process, resulting in a stronger rise.

4.Self Rising Flour

Leavening agents are used with some varieties of flour, especially those with significant gluten content, to produce lighter and softer baked products by embedding small gas bubbles. Self-rising (or self-raising) flour is sold premixed with chemical leavening agents. The added ingredients are evenly distributed throughout the flour which aids a consistent rise in baked goods. This flour is generally used for preparing scones, biscuits, muffins, etc.

5.Enriched Flour

During the process of making flour nutrients are lost. Some of these nutrients are replaced during refining and the result is “enriched flour”.

Methods to judge quality of Flour

Flour Colour

A very simple way to determine colour differences in different batches of flour is to look at the colour of different types of flour under a sheet of glass. This can be done with more than one flour at a time. This method not only facilitates a comparison of the whiteness of different flours but also allows for an inspection for impurities. The flour should be of “perfectly regular consistency and not contain any specks”. This obviously does not pertain to mixed grain or to other than white flours. Several methods exist for the measurement of colour, all of which relate to the quantity of reflected or absorbed light.

Texture and Feel

The texture and size of granulation plays an important role in kneading and also determines the speed at which the dough rises. In general, bread flour is slightly coarse and falls apart when pressed into a lump. Pastry flour is smooth and fine and can be squeezed into a lump. Cake flour is smooth and fine, can be squeezed into a lump, and stays in a lump more solidly when pressed.

Absorption Ability

Absorption measures the amount of water that can be absorbed by a given quantity of flour. In bread making, it is usually preferable to have flour that can absorb a large amount of water. Measurements of absorption are done to determine the amount of water the dough can absorb, which in turn indicates dough yield and shelf life. Optimum absorption represents the maximum amount of water, as a percent of the flour weight that will produce a high yield of bread during the baking process.

Flour Protein

Traditionally flour protein has been the main parameter used to judge flour quality and strength. Today we know that not all wheat protein is created alike. Wheat “protein” or Albumen is composed of four types of protein: gliadin, glutenin, albumin and globulin. Gliadin and glutenin comprise roughly 85% of the Albumen, and are the gluten-forming components. Albumin and globulin are water soluble, and thus don’t add to the strength of the flour. The percentage of protein (Albumen) only tells us the amount of protein, and is only a hint as to the real character of the flour. This figure does not tell us anything about the type, or quality of protein. The farinograph test gives us more valuable information about the “quality” of the protein; and thus how it will perform in the bakery.

Flour Moisture

The level of moisture in flour is important mainly f or the issue of storage. When the moisture level exceeds 16 % the shelf life of the flour is greatly reduced. Generally, the moisture will be 14-15%, which when stored in appropriate conditions (relatively cool, dry and aerated) allows for plenty of shelf life. There is a correlation between moisture content and water absorption but can be counteracted by starch damage.

Flour Ash

The ash content of the flour is determined by incinerating a sample of flour. The minerals naturally present in the flour do not burn and remain as ash. The weight of the ash is then compared to the original sample. The ash content tells us something about the extraction of the flour. In the endosperm of the wheat kernel, the mineral content increases from the centre outwards. The area of the endosperm nearest the aleurone and bran layers has the highest mineral content. Higher ash contents indicate higher extraction. Most flours will have an ash content below 0.6%, patent flours can go as low as 0.35%

Falling Number

The falling number test determines the amylase activity of a flour sample. The amylase enzymes are used to break down the starch in flour to release sugar ready for fermentation. The test entails heating measured amounts of water and flour in a special test tube. The tube is placed in a boiling water bath and agitated with a plunger for 55 seconds to allow the sample to gelatinise. Then the plunger is released at the top of its cycle on the surface of the sample, the time that it takes the plunger to sink through the gelatinised starch to the bottom of the tube is recorded. The total time in seconds (including the original 55 seconds) is recorded as the “falling number”. Therefore the minimum number is 55 and some flours can push into the high 400’s and beyond.

Depending on the alpha-amylase activity, the degradation of the starch paste will vary. The higher the alpha-amylase activity, the lower the number, and vice versa. In Australian and Canadian wheats, typically the falling number has to be adjusted (reduced) in the flour through the addition of diastatic malt, or fungal amylase for use in the Bakery. Generally the baker will find that fermentation progresses more rapidly as falling numbers become lower.

Farinograph

The “Brabender Farinograph” is one of the most common flour testing machines in use today. The farinograph produces a graph that represents the force required to turn two mixing arms in a small mixing chamber with dough at an adjusted hydration. On the graph each vertical line represents thirty seconds 

MTI

Mixing tolerance index is the difference in BU, from the top of the curve at the peak to the top of the curve measured at five minutes after the peak. Higher MTI numbers indicate greater mixing tolerance.

Starch Damage

Inherent characteristics of the wheat, along with the physical effects of milling determine the level of starch damage. The process of wheat milling damages a portion of the starch granules. This tendency is amplified as the hardness of the wheat increases. Because of this, the starch damage is of particular concern here in New Zealand. Starch damage increases the amount of fermentable carbohydrate as well as the absorption of the flour. Normally starch granules absorb one-third their weight in water, when damaged that increases to 2-3 times their weight. Damaged starch granules are very susceptible to attack by alpha-amylase enzymes.

The combination of high levels of fermentable carbohydrate, and water, (and thus rapid enzymatic activity) make conditions optimal for more active fermentation as the damaged starch levels increase. Also, though flour with high starch damage figures absorbs a lot of water, once the amylase enzymes do their work, the dough becomes slack. Balance, as always, is key. Too much starch damage and the dough tends to be slack and over-fermented; too little and the fermentation stalls after the immediately available sugars are consumed.

One should expect to see starch damage at 6-9% for winter wheat, and 7-10% for spring. Damaged starch significantly affects both Farinograph water absorption, and dough extensibility and resistance (Alveograph). 

Extensograph

Produced by Chopin, the Alveograph is an instrument that gives valuable rheological information about a dough sample by measuring the pressures attained during the inflation of a dough sample into a bubble. Because the test expands a dough sample in a biaxial plane, similar to the way dough cells expand in actual bread dough, this test is highly regarded. This test is traditionally used as a standard in countries that have historical or cultural links to France but is used elsewhere in the world as a supplementary test for evaluation or verification purposes.