Table of Contents
Q.1. What are data, information and knowledge ? Is there any relationship between data, information and knowledge ? Substantiate your answer with suitable examples from travel and tourism field. (20)
Data
Data is usually an observed fact, obtained on the basis of a systematic survey or study, relating to a certain activity. For example, social data with reference to urban life and civic amenities, government statistics relating to trade, excise duties, taxes, etc., statistics relating to number of beds in hotels, number of inbound and outbound tourists, foreign tourists, domestic tourist flows and similar others. These have value with reference to studies on subjects connected with these data. These data are analysed and synthesised to derive indicators, provide projections and arrive at valid inferences with reference to any event or activity.Information
Information is obtained through processing of data. The storage, retrieval and processing of data become the essential resource for all economic and social exchanges. These include:1. Data processing of records: payrolls, government benefits (e.g., social security), bank clearances, credit clearances and the like.
2. Data-bases: characteristics and features of tourists as shown by tourist data, market research, opinion surveys, election analysis, bibliographic data and the like.
3. Data processing for scheduling: airline and railway reservations, production scheduling, inventory analysis, document delivery priorities in libraries and information centres, and the like.
Knowledge
Knowledge on the other hand, is an organised set of statements of fact or ideas, presenting a reasoned judgement or an experimental result, which is transmitted to others through some communication medium in some systematic form. Knowledge consists of new judgements (research and scholarship) or presentation of older judgements as exemplified in text books, in teaching and learning, and collected as library and archival materials.Relationship between Data, Information & Knowledge
Data, information, knowledge and wisdom are the products of the mind that are created, acquired and perfected. They are not of equal value in terms of utility and application. Rather, they (Data, Information, Knowledge) are evaluated in an ascending scale of values, data having the least value, wisdom the greatest. These concepts in their totality constitute valuable human intellectual assets. They serve as the most precious human capital in all developmental processes.
• Data is Raw Material Cotton
• Information is Intermediary
• Knowledge is Finished Product
Data, information and knowledge are interrelated, in the sense that one is the building block of the other. Data is the building block for information and information is the building block of knowledge.
Information is news, facts, statistics, reports of contemporary events and activities, legislation, tax-codes, judicial decisions and the like.
Knowledge is interpretation in context, relatedness, conceptualisation and forms of argument. The results of knowledge are theories; the effort to establish relevant relationships or connection between facts, data and other information in some coherent form and to explain the reasons for these generalisations.
Information
• is piecemeal, fragmented, particular,
• is timely, transitory, perhaps even ephemeral and
• is flow of messages.
Knowledge
• is structured, coherent and often of enduring significance,
• is stock, largely resulting from the flow, inputs of information,
• may affect the stock of knowledge by adding to it, restructuring it or changing it on any way.
Q.2. Write short notes on: (2×10=20)
a. Characteristics of Information
Characteristics of Information are1. The unique characteristics of information is that all other resources depend on information and knowledge. It is the perception and evaluation of resources which make their use possible. You cannot use that, or which you know nothing. Thus, the availability of information determines the use of other resources.
2. As a resource itself: Information is not reduced or diminished by wider use and sharing. On the contrary, its value tends to gain in the process. Hence, Anne Wells Branscomb (Communications Lawyer) calls it “a synergetic resource”, i.e., the more we have the more we use and the more useful it becomes.
3. Information is alive: Information exists only in the human mind – what it observes, remembers and can retrieve, and what it then analyses, intuits and integrates. Information is the input and output of human perception.
4. Information is compressible: It can be concentrated, integrated, summarised or miniatured for easier handling. Thus, we can store many complex cases in a theorem, squeeze insights from masses for data into a single formula or capture lessons learned from much practical experience in a manual of procedure.
5. Information is diffusive: It tends to leak and the more it leaks the more we have. Examples are the strait-jackets of public secrecy, intellectual property rights, etc.
6. Information is shareable: To quote the communications expert Colon Cherry ‘information’ cannot bring about exchange transactions, but only shared transactions. To illustrate, if I give you a flower or sell you my automobile, you have it and I don’t but if I pass on an idea or a fact, we both have it.
Thus, we come to the conclusion that ‘information’ as a resource is pervasive and different from other resources in fundamental ways, in kind not merely in degree.
b. Value of Information
The use and value of information depends on a number of factors. These are generic and some are related to the particular environment or situation in which information is received.The generic factors include:
a. A person’s cognitive style in receiving the information. People differ from each other in their preferences. Some understand information better in the form of pictures and graphs. Others prefer a narrative text or symbolic form.
b. Knowledge contained in a person’s memory.
c. Language.
These three factors operate independently, in addition to other factors such as his/her understanding of the system, the time available to respond or take action, the presence of work and so on.
Kenneth Arrow, a Nobel laureate is worth quoting in this connection: “no amount of legal protection can make a thoroughly appropriate commodity of something as intangible as information. There is a fundamental paradox in the determination of demand – it’s value to the purchaser is not known until he has it”.
The value of information as given by Pauline Atherton in “Handbook for Information Systems and Services” (UNESCO, 1977), can be cited as follows:
a. Improved capability of a country to take advantage of existing knowledge and ‘know-how’ achieved elsewhere.
b. Rationalisation and systematisation of a country’s research and development efforts in light of knowledge already available.
c. Wider knowledge base for the solution of problems.
d. New alternatives and approaches to the solution of technical problems, and options for minimising future ones.
e. Improved effectiveness and efficiency of technical activities in the production and services sectors.
f. Above all, better decision making in all sectors and at all levels of responsibility.
In setting a value on information, M.P. Carter points out the factors that need to be taken into account. These are:
a. Time: The speed at which the information can be obtained and is required. It implies the view that the quicker the information is, the greater its value, because time has ‘directionality’ and is ‘irreversible’. Moreover, right information at right time helps an organisation to gain an edge over the competitors.
b. Knowledge: The knowledge level of the recipients of the information is another important factor when talking in terms of information needs. There is no point in providing information if the knowledge of how to use it is not there. Tourism organisations must have capable managers and employees for making full use of the information received in the pursuit of their organisational goals.
c. Prior Information: The amount and type of other information that is available to assist with the decision for which the piece of information is to be used. In determining the value of a piece of information all the other information connected with it must be considered. This is a must for planning tour operators itineraries, etc.
d. Accuracy: Not only in general terms, but also at the operational level, the greater the accuracy of a piece of information, the greater it’s value. Knowledge will determine the extent to which the information will approach its true value. It will not add to the true value of the information, but a lack of it will not allow the true value to be achieved. Accuracy is the keyword as far as information in tourism is concerned.
e. Quantity: The size of a piece of information or the amount of information available for particular decision can affect it’s value. The effect is due to the time constraint, e.g., insufficient time to study it. Through experience, managers should use their discretion about the quantity to be obtained or analysed.
f. Power: Information can be closely linked to power, and as a result this may enhance the value of the information to the individual but not necessarily to the organisation. It is not only the source of power, but also an effective power itself, if released at an appropriate time. ThisThis gets related to politics of tourism and is also used as an effective tool by the super powers.
Q.3. Write an essay on “Role of Computers in Management and their Limitations”. (20)
The use of computers and Information Technology (IT)-based systems in typical businesses has redefined workplace practices, operational metrics and business models. Top management and key business executives have been able to influence the various capabilities of computer-based systems and efficiency software technologies to get a better handle on business operations, channelize employee productivity and address calculated goals. The importance of computers in management cannot be overstated.1. Planning
In order to be competitive, mega corporations, large-workforce organizations and even small and medium businesses need to do long range corporate planning in a systematic manner. Such organization development initiatives encompass human resources development, finance and budget allocation, procurement and supply chain, sales and marketing, research and development. Automated business processes, advanced computer systems and allied software applications provide companies with reports, tools and practices to address strategic objectives and the techniques and methods to achieve organizational goals.2. Communication
Computer networks connected over an intranet-based system or Web-based environment can communicate with one another. In modern businesses, business owners and enterprise decision makers need employees to communicate instantly with each other, collaborate and share files, information and relevant documents quickly in order to execute work-related tasks and pursuits. Use of e-mail systems, instant messaging tools and more recently social networking applications has also enhanced swifter communication with business partners, customers, suppliers and other key external stakeholders3. Transactions Management
Organizations and businesses perform thousands of transactions at varied customer and business partner –facing interfaces. Purchase managers, inventory system professionals and accounts and financial personnel need to keep track of invoices, purchase orders, payment gateways on organization websites and all transactions at the operational level. Computer systems integrate varied transaction processes and activities and facilitate real-time tracking of transactions. IT applications speed the process of transaction activities and help in calculations, generation of accurate summaries and reports.4. Decision Making
In contemporary businesses, gigabytes and masses of data and information is generated on a daily basis. Computers, IT systems and allied software programs help companies to classify, arrange, systematize and analyze information. Use of CRM solutions, Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) systems Management Information Systems (MIS) and database systems enable companies to operationally manage business processes and functional areas. Market intelligence, sales reports and customer insights generated from such systems aid business managers, top management and project heads in important decision making processes.5. Improve Productivity
One of the primary purposes of deploying large-scale computer systems, software, networking and IT tools is to gain productivity on all levels in an organization. All departments, manufacturing and production facilities and offshore centers should be able to leverage the capabilities and of modern IT systems and technologies and function more effectively and efficiently. Used strategically, computers streamline employee workflows, operational activities and functional processes, ensure better control in business management and impact the bottom-line.Limitations of Computer in Management
The usage of computer gives following disadvantages in comparison to manual :
1. Lack of common sense
Computer is only an electronic device. It cannot think. If we provide an incorrect data, it does not have the common-sense to question the correctness of the data. For overcoming this problem, several Software Specialists are engaged in the project of developing intelligence to the computer. To it, they have given name as Artificial Intelligence. They are willing to develop the feeling and inhumation in this device.We hope that in near future the artificial intelligence will help this device to function in more interactive way. Today, software’s are available which may convert our speech into text. This is the beginning of an era where computer may be quite interactive with human beings. In addition, to execute the function, operator will give verbal instructions.
2. Memory without brain
Computer can store data in its memory. However, if a wrong instruction is provided, it does not have a brain to correct the wrong instructions.3. Slavery
A computer is a slave; it cannot execute the program by itself. It requires instructions to execute the program and generate information. Thus, we see that the computer cannot do anything by itself. It has a relationship of master and slave. Until master is not instructing, slave will not perform any function. In the same way computer does.Q.4. What do you mean by ‘Computer Hardware” and “Computer Software” ? Also explain the difference between Random Access Memory and Serial Access Memory. (20)
Computer Hardware
Hardware is the collection of physical parts of a Computer system that has shape and size and can be feel.The most essential hardware components are
• Motherboard,
• CPU,
• RAM memory,
• IO system,
• Power supply,
• Video display controller,
• Bus,
• Hard disk drive.
Inside the CPU box there is hard disk, motherboard, and RAM, video card, CPU Fan, sound card, server components, CD/DVD drive and many more.
The hardware components does change in shape and size as in a desktop computer the CPU integrates all the components that are connected by wires but in laptop computers the components are integrated into a single portable unit. Basically the hardware components in a Computer system are connected through wires in order to function properly. From power supply to network connection all are connected through wires.
Computer Software
Computer software consists of sets of programmed instructions which enable the hardware units to perform. Programming a computer to perform has always been a very difficult task. The first electronic computer was programmed using wired panels. Today’s computers are programmed using software.A computer software can be broadly classified into two categories – System Software and Application Software. System software is a set of instructions to the machine hardware to interpret and execute application software. An application software is a set of programming instructions for specific applications like payroll accounting, inventory control, etc. a systemsoftware consists of language translators called compilers (compiles program-wise), interpreters (compiles like-wise) and assemblers (converts semi-machine-language, macro-instructions, to machine language), operating systems, utilities and special purpose software.
Difference between Random & Serial access memory
Secondary memory is essential to any computer system because of the limited main memory. There are two types of secondary memory available, serial access memory, random access memory.
• A serial access memory provides only a serial access to retrieve information stored in it. A random access memory provides a random access to retrieve information stored in it.
• It is helpful to think in terms of a cassette tape providing serial access memory and an LP record providing a random access memory.
• Computers use magnetic tapes to provide serial access memory and magnetic disks to provide random access memory.
• Random-access memory, or RAM, is a form of data storage that can be accessed randomly at any time, in any order and from any physical location in contrast to other storage devices, such as hard drives, where the physical location of the data determines the time taken to retrieve it. RAM is measured in megabytes and the speed is measured in nanoseconds and RAM chips can read data faster than ROM.
• Random access memory is able to locate data in any order but serial access memory can only locate data in a sequence. Serial access memory will check the first memory cell for the data it needs, if it doesn’t have the data it needs then it moves to the next memory cell until it finds the right data.
Q.5. Describe the characteristics of Local Area Networks and Network Topologies. (20)
Characteristics of LAN
Here are important characteristics of a LAN network:
• It is a private network, so an outside regulatory body never controls it.
• LAN operates at a relatively higher speed compared to other WAN systems.
• There are various kinds of media access control methods like token ring and Ethernet.
• Coverage area is generally a few kilometres.
• Using different dedicated transmission medium you can achieve the transmission rate of 1 Mb/s to 100 Mbit / sec or higher, with the further development of LAN technology is currently being developed toward higher speed (e.g. 155Mbps, 655Mbps and 1000Mbps etc.).
• In LAN you can run the multiple devices to share a transmission medium.
• You can use the different topology mainly bus and ring in LAN.
• The communication quality is better IN LAN, the transmission error rate are low as compare to WAN.
• LAN support a variety of communications transmission medium such as a Ethernet cable (thin cable, thick cable, and twisted pair), fiber and wireless transmission.
• A LAN usually has low cost, installation, expansion and maintenance and LAN installation is relatively simple, good scalability.
Network Topology
The graphical arrangement of computer systems, or nodes to form a computer network, is called the network topology. A network topology can be one of two types: physical topology and logical topology.
Physical topology refers to the physical arrangement of computer nodes based on hardware configuration while logical topology defines how data is flowing through the network.
Both topologies exist in a Local Area Network (LAN). All the nodes in LAN are connected with each other through a valid media which shows its physical arrangement based on hardware used while data flow through this arrangement shows logical topology.
There are many types of physical topology. Some popular types are-
1. Peer–to–Peer Arrangement
Sometimes this is called as a point-to-point link. Each point–to–point link contains one transmitter and one receiver. Each station receives data exactly from one transmitter and each transmitter transmits data to exactly one receiver. Receiving and transmission process can be done over a single wire or can use separate wires for better performance.2. Bus Topology
Bus topology is also called as point–to–multi–point arrangement. In a bus topology, all nodes or devices are linked with one transmitter or server computer via a single cable (mostly coaxial cable) called Backbone. All nodes are connected to the bus cable by drop lines. A drop line is a connection running between the nodes and the main cable.3. Star Topology
In a star topology, each node has a dedicated point–to–point connection only with a central server, normally called a hub. The nodes are not directly connected to each other. Hence, direct data flow is not allowed in between the nodes. The central server or hub acts as a data exchanger as one node sends data exactly to hub and hub transmits this data to another node.4. Tree Topology
Tree topology is a combination of one or more star topology arrangements. All the sub-central hubs are connected to a main central hub to form a tree topology. A cable TV network is a good example of this type of topology.5. Ring Topology
In a ring topology, each node has a dedicated point–to–point line configuration only with the two nodes on either side of it. A signal is passed along the ring in one direction, from node to node, until it reaches its receiver. Each node in the ring is integrated as a repeater. When a node receives a signal intended from another node, its repeater regenerates the bits and passes them along.6. Mesh Topology
In a mesh topology, each node has a dedicated point–to–point connection with rest of the nodes in the network. Dedicated connection means data can only be flown between two nodes, it connects.7. Hybrid Topology
This topology is a common arrangement of one or more topologies described above. It means one or more above described topologies connected with each other to form a hybrid network arrangement.Q 6. “Information is a valuable resource in any organization. However, the preparation of formal information is not free, it costs money.” Analyze the statement and give suitable examples in support of your answer. (20)
Information is a valuable resource in any organisation. However, the preparation of formal information is not free; it costs money. How much should an organisation spend for information. Some type of a cost-benefit analysis ought to be undertaken. It is more easily said, than done. Difficulties occur in measuring the cost of providing the information and measuring the value of information. Information is conceptual in nature and possibly has hardly any tangible characteristics except symbolic representations.Some aspects of information economics are-
1. Cost of Information
The costs of operating the information system could be categorised as follows:
a. Hardware Costs
This is normally a fixed or sunk cost over a relevant range in case of computer based information system. With the quantum jumps in the field of electronics, the hardware costs are coming down in an appreciable way.b. System Analysis, Design and Implementation Costs
This again is a sunk cost. This function includes formulating a methodology for overall electronic data processing procedure. This should include the cost for preparation of programmes and the so called software costs. With computers being the ‘in thing’ these days, software people are pitching their costs higher and higher.c. Conversion Costs
This is a sunk cost and includes any kind of change from one method of data processing to another.d. Cost for Space and Environmental Control Factors
This cost is semi-variable. Examples of this cost are floor space, air-conditioners and dehumidifier systems, power control units, standby generator, security and so on.e. Operation Costs
This is basically a variable cost and includes a variety of personnel, facilities and systems maintenance, supplies, utilities and support facilities costs.2. Value of Information
Information must primarily possess attributes of relevance, availability and timeliness, to have value and thus to qualify as information. Objectivity, sensitivity, comparability, consciousness, and completeness are desirable and necessary only in varying degrees. No doubt quantifiability is desired to the maximum extent possible.Information may be evaluated in terms of ‘utilities’ which may facilitate or retard its use.
These ‘utilities’ are –
a. Form Utility
As the form of information more closely matches the requirements of the decision-maker, its value increases. If the manager is looking for a graph depicting the sale of different outbound tours/destinations, he or she appreciates receiving the data in the graphical form rather than in a tabular form.b. Time Utility
Information has greater value to the decision-maker if it is available when needed. If you make information available well ahead of time, one might forget about it. Obviously, any availability after the due time might have no relevance. Therefore, greatest value is at the appropriate time when the decision-maker needs it.c. Place Utility (Accessibility)
Information has greater value if it can be accessed or delivered easily. On line systems maximise both time and place utility. It is very important to have the information available at the right place at the right time.d. Possession Utility (Organisation Location)
The possessor of information strongly affects its value by controlling its dissemination to others. Information is power or rather one who has information has the power.3. Bias and Error
Managers or in fact anyone, would have strong bias towards quality rather than quantity of information. It is possible to estimate the biases of the decision-makers and provide suitably adjusted information. For example, one might have some bias regarding a destination and not bother or believe any information provided by the promoters of that destination.Errors, a more serious problem, may result from:
a. Incorrect data measurement and collection methods,
b. Failure to follow correct processing procedures,
c. Loss or non-processing procedures,
d. Loss or non-processing of data,
e. Incorrect history (master) file (or use of wrong history file),
In most information systems, the receiver of information might have no knowledge of either bias or errors that may effect its quality. The difficulties with errors may be overcome by:
• internal controls to detect errors,
• internal and external auditing,
• addition of ‘confidence limits’ to data and user instruction in measurement, and
• processing procedures so that users can evaluate possible errors.
The first two methods attempt to reduce the uncertainty about the data and therefore increase the information content. The last two remedies provide the user with confidence limits.
4. Value of Perfect Information
In the decision theoretic framework, there could be decision-making under certainty where we assume existence of perfect information regarding outcomes. In decision-making under uncertainty, we assume only a knowledge of possible outcomes but no information as to probabilities. In decision theory, the value of information is the value of the change in decision behaviour caused because of availability of information less the cost of obtaining the information.
Given a set of possible decisions, a decision-maker will select one on the basis of the information at hand. However, if a new set of information input changes the decision, then the value of the new information is the difference in value between the outcome of the old decision and that of the new decision, less the cost of obtaining the new information.
The concept of the value of perfect information is useful because it demonstrates how information has value as it influences or changes a decision.
Q.7. Discuss the role of computers in “Management Decision-making”. (20)
The common experience in the Indian scene has been a plethora of transaction-processing systems which have been abiding for long. Left to themselves, computer professionals have usually been good at planning, designing, developing and implementing the transaction-processing systems, due to their inherent advantages of recurring qualitative data and decisive logic base. On the other hand, MIS at a corporate level always needs involvement of the user-manager in an intensive way and this has shown a tardy growth.
Some selective applications of computers in the decision-making areas are-
1. Financial Decision Making
At corporate level MIS would still need the database comprising the transaction-processing inputs, such as, cash transactions, receipts, issues, return, foreign exchange earned or spent, rejections, interests, depreciation, etc. The other inputs are in the nature of the various accounting rules and procedures, apart from the scales of payment.The financial management decisions are made with monthly and annual final accounts, profit and loss accounts, balance sheet, etc. In addition, cash accounts are needed by management, apart from the cost accounting for pay-roll accounting, suppliers ledger and preparation of capital and operations budget.
2. Personnel Decision Making
Personnel pay rolls have been an old hat in transaction-processing systems. In a number of organisations, pay-rolls have been extended to cover the entire gamut of employee service, namely, income-tax assessment and recovery, provident fund accumulation and withdrawal, compulsory deposits (when they existed) and statutory reports and returns. A comprehensive database for personnel decision-making would require not merely such financial data but also other categories of pre-recruitment and post-recruitment personnel data.Personnel decision-making based on corporate MIS has become quite common in a number of large organisations in the country.
3. Marketing Decision Making
Sales invoicing and sales accounting have been the early transaction-processing systems in most organisations. The inputs can be the deciding of a tour package, inspection of all the places of concern and despatch of documents on tours arranged and despatched apart from the price schedules, some occasional returns. Such data can be built into a comprehensive data-base which can help eventually the market planning and the publicity (advertisement) planning on one hand and linkages with order-processing on the other.Both market planning and publicity planning depend on the creation of a number of profiles with full particulars such as customer profile, product profile and user industry profile. The seasonality of orders, the trends in market fluctuations, the philosophy of industrial indents and the ebb and flow of relevant markets can be assessed and taken care of in such a planning process.
4. Production Decision Making
The production of goods is a general term used very often in most of the organisation. In the service sector it can be thought as a substitute for the service to be rendered or specifically in the tourism sector, for example, it can be a term used to specify all the tour packages specially designed every year as the goods produced.The basic inputs are the salient production data collected periodically from all the production units or designing units as and when the main events occur. The corporate MIS would involve: performance review on a periodic basis (daily, monthly and annually), monitoring of in-process inventory, other performance statistics, comparison of the current production with the past performance, receipt and consumption of services and energy resources and daily analysis of performance.
5. Material Decision Making
Materials accounting based on receipts, issues, returns, and rejections have been the part of transaction-processing system in all organisations so far. For the purpose of materials decision making, comprehensive databases can have three components of purchasing, inventory, and materials review.The purchasing data-base can help creating a corporate MIS for monitoring of purchase indents up to acceptance of tenders, monitoring of purchase orders against schedules of delivery, analysis of lead-time delays, vendor-rating (in terms of quality performance of delivery schedule), and monitoring payments against deliveries.
6. Maintenance Decision Making
Transaction-processing systems have looked at the records of components, spare-parts, jugs, fixtures and tools as inputs, and consumption statements and maintenance accounts as outputs. These inputs can still be valid for building up a corporate MIS with such additional data as equipment conditions, history of failures, direct cost of maintenance, inventory values and materials movement, man-hours spent, over-time paid, other resource usage, maintenance of employee’s performance, reliability and maintainability of equipment, and maintenance contribution to the finances.Q.8. Write short notes on: (2×10=20)
a. Data Flow Diagram
A data-flow diagram is a way of representing a flow of data through a process or a system (usually an information system). The DFD also provides information about the outputs and inputs of each entity and the process itself. A data-flow diagram has no control flow, there are no decision rules and no loops. Specific operations based on the data can be represented by a flowchart.A Data Flow Diagram (DFD) is a graphical representation to depict the flow of data in a CBIS. It should be realised that a DFD provides only a logical data flow and not a physical data flow.
A logical data flow in a CBIS can be explained as follows: Data originates from a Source, undergoes some Processing and terminates in a Sink. The processing step may require data stored elsewhere in Data Stores, over and above what is supplied by the source. Similarly the output of processing may be an intermediate data store which is used for subsequent processing.
These components of a DFD are presented graphically, using the following conventions:
• a closed square box to denote source/sink,
• an open rectangular box to denote intermediate data store,
• a circle to denote processing, and
• an arrow to denote the directional flow of data.
There are several notations for displaying data-flow diagrams. The notation presented above was described in 1979 by Tom DeMarco as part of Structured Analysis.
For each data flow, at least one of the endpoints (source and / or destination) must exist in a process. The refined representation of a process can be done in another data-flow diagram, which subdivides this process into sub-processes.
The data-flow diagram is part of the structured-analysis modeling tools. When using UML, the activity diagram typically takes over the role of the data-flow diagram. A special form of data-flow plan is a site-oriented data-flow plan.
Data-flow diagrams can be regarded as inverted Petri nets, because places in such networks correspond to the semantics of data memories. Analogously, the semantics of transitions from Petri nets and data flows and functions from data-flow diagrams should be considered equivalent.
A DFD displays data flow in a top-down approach. Therefore, we start with a macro DFD and ‘explode it’ into micro DFDs. Care has to be exercised to provide clarity for each level of DFD.
Towards this, a standard practice is:
a. Not to use more than one page for one DFD, and
b. Not to show more than 6 or 7 circles (processing steps) in each DFD.
While exploding a DFD into lower levels, it is very essential to maintain a continuity and linkage between a DFD and its member DFDs. This is achieved by numbering each circle (processing step) by adopting the numbering system used in text books. In a text book, chapters are numbered 1, 2, 3, …, sections within a chapter have numbers as extensions of the chapter number, e.g., 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, … and sub-sections within each section numbered as 1.1.1, 1.1.2, 1.1.3, etc. Similarly circles in DFDs are numbered as 1,2,3…, 1.1, 1.2, 1.3,…, 1.1.1, 1.1.2, 1.1.3, …. So on.
b. System Design (Physical)
While a logical design provides an estimate of processing requirements, a physical design involves mapping the logical design onto the physical hardware of a computer system. Upgrading the existing hardware and/or acquiring a new computer system if required to meet the processing requirements is also undertaken at this stage.The system analysts assign specific responsibilities to the programmers who develop and test the programmes. The development and testing of the systems take place in a phased manner:
• Development and testing of the individual programmes,
• Development and testing of the individual programmes as a part of the system modules,
• Development and testing of the system modules as a part of the major subsystems, and
• Development and testing of the major subsystems as a part of the proposed system.
The development of the system includes writing of the actual programmes to handle data.
Subsequently, file organisation details are worked out and appropriate file organisation methods established for processing and storing data. File organisation methods can be broadly classified into two types – serial access organisation and random access organisation.
Excellent programming skills and experience are required for this phase of the system. The basic activities involved in this phase are:
• Checking of the programme specifications received from the system development stage and expanding these specifications,
• Breaking the system modules into smaller programmes and allocating these programmes to the members of the system development team,
• Producing the programme code in the chosen computer programming language,
• Defining the interfaces between various programmes and designing tests for checking their interfaces,
• Ensuring the data availability for individual and integragted testing,
• Checking the quality of the code and its adherence to the established standards,
• Prepare the documentation for each one of the programmes,
• Receiving the user data for acceptance testing, and
• Getting the user sing-off after the acceptance testing
For development of the proposed system, it is important that all possible support should be provided to the development team. This support includes availability of:
• Office Space,
• Relevant Data,
• Secretarial Assistance, and
• Access to key functionaries throughout the system development effort.
The final output of this phase is a fully developed and tested software system along with complete documentation and testing results.
Q.9. Critically analyse the role of latest information technology in the travel and tourism sector. (20)
The development in the field of IT and ICT has deeply influenced the ways in which tourism businesses perform their activities. Service standards have rose quite high and customers expect to be served 24/7 around the year and service is not confined to only office hours. Leading to the birth of online portals, the travel business was revolutionised forever as these portals have be successful in effectively organizing and distributing distressed tourism inventories to the clients. Various hotel chains, amusement parks, luxury trains and most certainly the leading airlines have all be using IT in order to reach out to customers and allowing them to directly access their reservation system.Such application of IT or ICT has only helped these companies in getting better understanding about the needs of their customers and also helped them in offering them the freedom of choice. ICT Is critical for strategic management of organisations as they allow –
• Expansion into new market
• Empowerment of employees
• Lowering of costs
• Enhancing distribution
Following are some of the many uses of IT/ICT in the field of Travel and Tourism –
1. Flight Tracking System
Travel technology is used to monitor as well as manage travel, and also includes flight tracking system. Global aviation software such as Plane Finder, RadarBox24, Flight Stats.com, etc., are useful in tracing the activities of flights from across the world.2. Dynamic Packaging
The freedom offered to customers in order to create their own travel package by choosing the transportation services, flight tickets, accommodation types, activities to get involved in, rental services, etc. instead of choosing a package predefined by the agent is called dynamic packaging. This type of packaging witnesses the real time sourcing of flights, trains, hotels, cars, etc. as per the requirement of the customer.3. Computer Reservation System
CRS is famous for the ability to store the information and retrieve it when required. It is also used for conducting transactions related to hotel books, air tickets, car rental, etc.Some of the most widely used CRS around the world are Amadeus, Abacus (currently owned by Sabre), KIU, Mercator, Navitaire, Sabre, Travel Technology Interactive, Travel Sky, Travelport, etc. Global Distribution System is a CRS which sells tickets for major airlines across the globe.
4. Global Distribution System
GDS forms a is a linkage between the service providers in the travel industry, such as airlines, hotels, car rental companies and enabling automated transaction between travel service providers and the travel agencies. It is mainly through GDS, that the travel agency is able to cater to its needs for various tourism related services, to the end users, which is the customer. It concentrates across three main domains of the industry, viz., accommodation (hotel reservations), ticket reservation in airlines and car rentals. It not only links the bookings, but also the rates in which each of the services are available. Famous GDS are Amadeus, Galileo, Sabre, Worldspan, etc.5. Extensible Markup Language
Extensible Markup Language based technologies are of great importance in the travel and tourism industry. As the support the reservation of tickets for airlines, or in implementing merchandising functions and optional services in the booking process. Another important application of XML is the establishing of direct connections between Airlines and Travel Agencies. In order to create a generally accepted XML-standard, the Open Axis Group was founded.6. Customer Relationship Management
CRM is famous for the convenience it brings in when it comes to managing an organisation’s interaction, not just with current customers, but also future customers. CRM helps in analysing customer data and pulls out the history when need be which helps the company in understanding the needs of the customer and what to cater to. This plays a role in the retention of the customer by maintaining ideal business relationships with customers and ultimately driving sales growth.7. Audio Tours
Another interesting development in the world of Information technology’s integration into tourism is the Audio Tours. An audio tour is a pre-recorded message or commentary which includes the details of the places the tourist visits. Usually fed into a handheld device with headsets, the commentary provides the background information and other context related to the place of visit. Usually used in historical sites and museums, Audio Tours are also available of outdoor tours at selected locations.8. GPS Tours
A GPS Tour, similar to a an audio tour includes pre-recorded audio commentary through a handheld device, for mobile applications such as trains, walking tours, buses, boats, trolley, etc. GPS tours uses the visitor’s location via satellite technology and provides the relevant information to them. These tours are available in multiple language simultaneously which can be downloaded in the cell phones and makes it possible to mine the common interest location of the visitors using the data from multiple users.9. Biometric Passport
Also known as E-Passport, contains the biometric information that can be used for identification of the traveller. It combines paper passport along with electronic biometric information of the owner. Biometrics is all about the analysis of physical characteristics that are unique to a person. It can include fingerprints, retinal scans and signatures. It uses contactless smart card technology, including a microprocessor chip and antenna which is installed in the front or back cover, or center page, of the passport. Document and chip characteristics are documented in the International Civil Aviation Organization’s (ICAO) Doc 9303. India has recently initiated first phase deployment of Biometric E- Passport for Diplomatic passport holders in India and abroad.10. Virtual Tour
A virtual tour is an online media presentation that represents a real location in the most realistic form possible. It comprises of videos as well as sill images and may include sound effects, text, narration and music. Virtual Tours are famous in the tourism industry. Especially hotel chains provide a 360 degree view of not just the room buy also the amenities and property in general as well.Q.10. Discuss the impact of computerisation on job opportunities in India. Explain with examples. (20)
Automation and computerization were the by-products of globalization in the 1990s. Due to increasing mechanization and industrialization of work activities, a technological boom started which had huge impacts on the role of low skilled workers within an organization. The task structure changed and so did the wages and incentives paid to the employees. As a result, the low skill workers tried to regain their power by developing strategies to bargain for compensation packages with the managers. The following paper is based upon this issue. It attempts to highlight the impacts of change along with worker’s role to deal with these processes of change.Impact of Computerization on Jobs
Automation refers to the use of automatic machinery instead of manual labor to carry out factory work activities whereas computerization is related to the increasing use of technological change in the organizations. As technology grows, the methods to do manufacturing jobs are changed and as a result, the whole occupational structure is changed. Computerization involves numerical control (NC) technologies that change the staffing patterns and company structure.
When tasks are transferred to automatic machines, job opportunities decrease as less people are involved in final creation of a product. But on the other hand, in some cases, more people are required to run those machines. But in the latter case, the workers get reduced wages. So, Computer integrated manufacturing systems (CIM) have developed easier application systems for the organizations but at the same time, it has increased the concerns of the worker labor class due to decrease in opportunities and wages.
Impact of Computerization on Worker Skills
Apart from change in structure of tasks, the nature of skills required to perform the job are also changed. Two types of worker skills are important to consider while exploring the impact of computerization and automation on low skilled workers.
a. Skill Depth: It includes two major areas: judgment and time proficiency. Low skilled jobs that require little time proficiency to master the work (e.g. filing or food servicing) as well as judgment have much lower wages as compared to those skills that are more complex and require more time to learn. Automation has reduced the proficiency time required for certain jobs therefore; it has also reduced worker wages. Skill depth is reduced because of transformation of complex manual labor to simple mental tasks. On the other hand, computerization might allow workers to have greater freedom in the distribution of tasks. NC technology is used to distinguish programming from machine operations. So, this CNC technology can facilitate in reducing proficiency time by combining programming and machine operation. CAD system were also developed which allowed low skilled workers to create faster and better output through easy learning and less effort.
b. Skill Breadth: This concept was of importance for employees involved in manufacturing, maintenance and repair tasks. It involves the changing of job content as a result of technology. Although it reduces the effort of manual input but with regards to the compensation programs, this technique did not attract the low skilled laborers.
Decrease in worker wages
The above facts show how the dynamic world brought with itself a changing organizational pattern. The fast and easy work done by machines and computers used to leave workers in the lurch. Organization’s focus shifted towards profit generation by increasing productivity through the use of smarter machines. This had severe consequences on the overall economic structure of developing countries. The economic progress was hampered and unemployment was increased. The workers, who formed a major chunk of the population felt depressed because their sources of earning were severally impacted and they had to negotiate with the managers for their wages and compensation. Following analysis indicates how the workers in 1990s strived in the changing world of automation.
Computerization and technological change has changed the job structure and the skills required. These changes increased unemployment in the developing countries and increased wage concerns of the workers.