1st sem l Nutrition l Solved Papers l 2013 – 14

Q.1. How would you classify carbohydrates? Explain giving examples of each. What are effects of deficiency and excess of carbohydrates in diet?

Carbohydrates are broadly classified into two categories i.e. simple carbohydrates and complex carbohydrates.

Simple Carbohydrates vs Complex Carbohydrates:

Simple Carbohydrate	Complex Carbohydrate
Simple carbohydrates contain single molecule or smaller chains of sugar.	Complex carbohydrates contain longer chains of sugar molecules than simple carbohydrates.
Simple carbohydrates are quicker to digest than complex carbohydrates.	Complex carbohydrates take longer to digest and are a more stable source of energy.
Simple carbohydrates are in foods such as table sugar and syrups.	Complex carbohydrates are present in foods such as bread and pasta.
Milk and milk products contain simple carbohydrate. These foods do not contain fiber but are rich in protein, calcium, and vitamin D	Complex carbohydrates found in whole foods tend to be highly nutritious.

Classification of carbohydrates on the basis of their structure and function are:

Monosaccharide

The monosaccharides are the simplest of the carbohydrates since they contain only one polyhydroxy aldehyde or ketone unit and cannot be further hydrolyzed into simpler units. (Mono: one, Saccharide: sugar).

There are two major classes of monosaccharides:
1. Aldoses:
Sugars containing an aldehydic group are known as aldoses, e.g., Glucose, galactose, mannose, and glycerose.
2. Ketoses:
Sugars containing a ketonic group are known as ketoses. e.g., Dihydroxyacetone, fructose, and ribulose.

Disaccharide

Sugars containing two monosaccharides linked through glycosidic bond are known as disaccharides.
The three most common disaccharides are:

Maltose

α-D-glucose + α-D-glucose = Maltose
Also known as malt sugar. It is found in germinating grain (such as barley) and is formed during the hydrolysis of starch to glucose during digestion.

Lactose

β-D-galactose + α-D-glucose = Lactose
It is present in milk hence, known as milk sugar. Lactose constitutes 5% of cow’s milk and 7% of human milk. It is digested by the enzyme lactase.

Sucrose

α-D-glucose + β-D-fructose = Sucrose
Also known as table sugar. Both anomeric carbons of glucose and fructose are tied together in the glycosidic linkage. Sucrose is abundant in sugar cane and sugar beets; maple syrup contains about 65% sucrose, with glucose and fructose present as well; caramel is the solid residue formed from heating sucrose.

Oligosaccharide

Oligosaccharides contain from 3 to 10 monosaccharide units. Oligosaccharides can have many functions including cell recognition and cell binding.
Raffinose is an example of oligosaccharide.
β-D-galactose + α-D-glucose + β-D-fructose = Raffinose
An oligosaccharide found in peas and beans; largely undigested until reaching the intestinal flora in the large intestine, releasing hydrogen, carbon dioxide, and methane).

Polysaccharide

Carbohydrates made up of more than 10 monosaccharide units are called polysaccharides. They are also known as glycans.

They are further classified as homopolysaccharides and heteropolysaccharides.

Homopolysaccharides:

Those polysaccharides which contain only one kind of monosaccharide unit are called homopolysaccharides. e.g., starch, glycogen, cellulose, dextran, inulin, agar, chitin, etc.

• Starch: Starch is a polymer consisting of D-glucose units. Starches (and other glucose polymers) are usually insoluble in water because of the high molecular weight, but they can form thick colloidal suspensions with water. It is the chief carbohydrates present in plants and forms the main source of dietary energy sources to humans.
• Glycogen: Glycogen, also known as animal starch, is made up of α-D-glucose units linked by α-1 → 4 linkages in the linear and α-1 → 6 linkages at the branching points. Glycogen is abundant in the liver and muscles; on hydrolysis, it forms glucose, which maintains normal blood sugar level and provides energy.
• Cellulose: Cellulose is a polymer consisting of long, unbranched chains of D-glucose connected by β(1→4) glycosidic linkages. It is the most abundant carbohydrate in nature. It forms the woods of the plant. Cellulase enzyme is absent in human being and hence it becomes non-utilizable.

Heteropolysaccharides:

heteropolysaccharides (heteroglycans) contain two or more different monosaccharide units. Usually, they provide extracellular support for organisms of all kingdoms: the cell envelope of bacteria, or the matrix that holds individual cells together in animal tissues, and provides protection, shape, and support to cells, tissues, and organs.
They include chondroitin sulfate, hyaluronic acid, and heparin.

Deficiency of carbohydrates

carbohydrate inadequacy results in increased production of organic compounds called ketones (a condition, known as ketosis), which imparts a distinctive sweet odor to the breath.

Ketosis and other untoward effects of a very-low-carbohydrate diet can be prevented by the daily consumption of 50 to 100 grams of carbohydrate.

Excess of Carbohydrates

Here are some of the harmful effects of too many carbohydrates in your diet:

Obesity

Carbs are a concentrated source of calories, at 4 calories per gram. And large servings of carb-heavy dishes like rice, pasta and bread can contain hundreds of — or in some cases, over a thousand — calories. If you’re habitually overeating carbohydrates, the excess calories could lead to Obesity.

Type 2 Diabetes

Type 2 diabetes has been linked to the overconsumption of refined carbohydrates, which include white bread, pasta, and many packaged snack foods. These types of carbs digest quickly and cause a rush of glucose into the blood. This increases the body’s need for insulin and the pancreas does not produce enough insulin. Insulin’s job is to move glucose out of the blood, having too little means that blood sugar is able to linger in our bloodstream and this raises our blood sugar level causing diabetes.

Atherosclerosis

Excess carbs change into the excess fat of your body. When your body fat reaches an extreme point, this fat causes the arteries’ walls to thicken up. Consumption of saturated fat encourages the plaque in the arteries to build up, thus narrowing the space for blood flow. This causes a disruption in the bloodstream, thus increasing the chances of a heart attack or a stroke. This condition is known as atherosclerosis.

Vascular Diseases

Consuming too many carbs increases the number of triglycerides in your blood, which then raises the risk of developing heart diseases. It also causes the arteries to swell and blood clots may occur in your heart and blood. Triglycerides beat the amount of good cholesterol in the body, potentially giving you numerous vascular diseases

OR
Define and classify proteins. Suggest methods to improve their quality.

• Proteins are large, complex, organic compounds made up of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen. The presence of nitrogen distinguishes proteins from carbohydrates and fats. Apart from nitrogen, elements such as sulfur, phosphorus, copper, and iron are also found in some proteins.
• They are composed of one or more chains of amino acids.
• Proteins are fundamental components of all living cells and include many substances, such as enzymes, hormones, and antibodies that are necessary for the proper functioning of an organism.
• They are essential in the diet of animals for the growth and repair of tissue and can be obtained from foods such as meat, fish, eggs, milk, and legumes.

Classification of Protein

• On the basis of protein composition

1. Simple Protein– comprises of only amino acid eg. Albumin, globulin
2. Conjugated Protein– comprises of amino acids and a non protein group. Eg. haemoglobin
3. Derived Protein– these are proteins derived by partial to complete hydrolysis from the simple or conjugated proteins by the action of acids, alkalis and enzymes. Eg. peptones

• On the basis of their quality( i.e. amino acids present in them)

1. Complete proteins – these proteins contain all essential amino acids in sufficient proportion and amount to meet the body’s growth need and for repair of tissue cells. Complete protein food have high biological value (BV). It is defined as the amount of absorbed nitrogen retained in the body. Eg. – egg, milk, meat.
2. Partially complete proteins : those proteins in which one or more  essential amino acids are present in inadequate amounts. They cannot  synthesize tissues but can maintain life. Found in plant foods- like cereals. Pulses, nuts, oilseeds. A combination of one incomplete protein with other in diet can provide increased amount of essential amino acids. Eg. Cereals are deficient in lysine and pulses are deficient in methionine.
3. Incomplete proteins : in these one or more essential amino acids are completely lacking. Thus these proteins are incapable of growth and repair of body cells. They cannot maintain life. Eg. Gelatin, zein in corn.

ESSENTIAL AMINO ACIDS are essential to maintain life. These cannot be synthesized in our body thus required through diet.

Methods of improving protein quality

• Animal protein contains all essential amino acids in correct proportions and amounts and is good quality proteins.
  Four essential amino acids are in short supply in plant proteins.
  They are lysine, methionine, threonine, and tryptophan.
  Proteins in plant foods are generally deficient in one or two essential amino acids. Cereals are poor in lysine and pulses are poor in methionine.
• Protein will be synthesized only when all amino acids, which form the protein, are present simultaneously. Vegetable proteins are partially complete proteins. These two points should be kept in mind while improving the protein quality of a meal.

The protein quality of a mainly vegetarian diet can be improved in the following ways.

• By including a small quantity of complete protein food in every meal. Complete protein foods such as milk, curds, paneer, cheese, buttermilk, and eggs could be used in small quantities in various preparations instead of including it in one meal only, e.g. cereal and milk, egg or cheese sandwiches, french toast, raitha, curd rice, or buttermilk at all meals in place of bowl of curd in one meal.
• Correct mixtures of plant foods could provide all essential amino acids in suitable proportions and amounts. Cereal and pulse combinations will complement each other as cereals provide methionine, which is lacking in pulses, and pulses provide lysine, which is lacking in cereals, when cereal and pulses are consumed together in the same meal, e.g. missie roti, Thalipeeth, Puran Poli, idli, and Rajma Chawal. This is possible because the same amino acids are not missing from all plant foods.
• Synthetic amino acids may be added to processed foods to compensate for the amino acid deficient in them, e.g., lysine enriched bread. Textured vegetable proteins are used successfully to improve protein quality and reduce the cost of protein-rich foods.
• When plant proteins are consumed with a small quantity of animal protein, the quality of the mixture is likely to be as effective as if the only animal protein has been consumed. A good rule while planning menus would be to include some animal proteins at each meal instead of concentrating it all in one meal.

Q.2. Define the term cholesterol. Give the sources and functions of cholesterol. Why they need to be maintained?

Cholesterol

• It is a fat-like substance present in food.
• It is different in structure from triglycerides, as it has a ring structure. It is present in all cells of the body and large amounts in the brain and nerve tissue.
• Cholesterol, if consumed in excess is responsible for diseases of the cardiovascular system.
• The normal blood cholesterol level for adults should be below 200mg/100ml blood.

The human body gets cholesterol from two sources:
Synthesis in the liver
Food rich in cholesterol (meat, poultry and full-fat dairy products)

Two main forms of Cholesterol

• LDL (low-density lipoprotein)

LDL cholesterol is often referred to as “bad cholesterol” because too much is unhealthy.

• HDL (high-density lipoprotein)

HDL is often referred to as “good cholesterol” because it is protective.

Dietary Cholesterol

Dietary cholesterol is found in animal-based products including meat, fish, eggs, as well as poultry and dairy. Red meat will have more cholesterol than chicken and fish, but shrimp and eggs have been known to be the worst cholesterol culprits of the group.

Blood cholesterol

Lipoproteins carry cholesterol in the blood. The two main types that carry cholesterol to and from cells are called low-density lipoproteins (LDL-C) and high-density lipoproteins (HDL-C).
The lower the density of the lipoproteins the more fats it contains. High-density lipoprotein (HDL cholesterol) is called the ‘good cholesterol’ because it helps to keep cholesterol from building up in the arteries. Low-density lipoprotein (LDL cholesterol) is called the ‘bad cholesterol’ because it is the main source of cholesterol build-up and blockage in the arteries. Statin medication work to reduce this LDL-C.

OR
How water balance is maintained in the body? Give the functions of water.

functions of water.

• Water quenched our thirst and is the most refreshing & cooling of all liquids.
• It is a structural component of all cells.
• Water is a medium in which all chemical reaction takes place.
• It is an essential component of all body fluid such as blood, cerebrospinal fluid, bile, digestive fluid, urine.
• It acts as a lubricant & helps us in swallowing food or to digest food.
• It acts as a solvent for the products of digestion & helps in transporting this product in different parts of the body.
• It regulates body temperature.
• It helps to throw the waste product from the body.

Water Balance

In a normal individual, the maintenance of water balance is archived by adjusting both water intake & excretion as needed.
The major inputs of water are:

• Fluids that we consume as beverages, including water depending on climatic conditions & habits.
• Different types of foods & fruits that we take in solid form.
• Metabolic water.

Output or loss of water from the body:

• Renal loss: Kidneys excrete about 1-2 liter of water daily
• Skin: The water loss from the skin is through perspiration.
• Intestine: A small quantity of water is normally losses in feces.
• Lungs: The air expired from the lungs also contains water.
• Sweat: It depends on physical activity & environmental conditions.

Q.3. Define the terms fats and fatty acids. Explain the types of fatty acids and give the functions of fats.

A fat molecule consists of two kinds of parts: a glycerol backbone and three fatty acid tails. Glycerol is a small organic molecule with three hydroxyl (OH) groups, while a fatty acid consists of a long hydrocarbon chain attached to a carboxyl group. A typical fatty acid contains 12–18 carbons, though some may have as few as 4 or as many as 36.
To make a fat molecule, the hydroxyl groups on the glycerol backbone react with the carboxyl groups of fatty acids in a dehydration synthesis reaction. This yields a fat molecule with three fatty acid tails bound to the glycerol backbone via ester linkages (linkages containing an oxygen atom next to a carbonyl, or C=O, group). Triglycerides may contain three identical fatty acid tails, or three different fatty acid tails (with different lengths or patterns of double bonds).

Saturated and unsaturated fatty acids

As shown in the example above, the three fatty acid tails of a triglyceride need not be identical to each other. Fatty acid chains may differ in length, as well as in their degree of unsaturation.

• If there are only single bonds between neighboring carbons in the hydrocarbon chain, a fatty acid is said to be saturated. (The thing that fatty acids are saturated with is hydrogen; in a saturated fat, as many hydrogen atoms as possible are attached to the carbon skeleton.)
• When the hydrocarbon chain has a double bond, the fatty acid is said to be unsaturated, as it now has fewer hydrogens. If there is just one double bond in a fatty acid, it’s monounsaturated, while if there are multiple double bonds, it’s polyunsaturated.

Lipids in biological systems function either as a source of stored metabolic energy or as structural matrices and permeability barriers in biological membranes.

Provide Energy

Although the main source of energy for our bodies is carbohydrates, fat is used as a source of backup energy in cases when carbohydrates are not available.
This is a concentrated energy source but it is important to remember that each gram of fat has nine calories (over double the calories from protein and carbohydrates) so you should avoid having more than 20 to 35% of your daily calories from fat.
In a 1,800 calorie diet, you should only consume 40-70 grams of fat.

Absorb Vitamins

Certain vitamins, which are known as fat-soluble, need fat to be absorbed and stored. Some examples include vitamin A, vitamin D, vitamin E and vitamin K, all of which are an essential part of anyone’s daily diet.
Vitamin A is responsible for promoting good vision and keeping our eyes healthy; vitamin D helps us absorb calcium; vitamin E neutralized free radicals, protecting cells in the process; and vitamin K is essential for blood clotting.
If you don’t have enough fat in your body, you become deficient in one or more of these vitamins.

Store Fat for Subsequent Use

Our bodies can also store fats to be used later on. If you consume food that includes more energy than the body needs to perform its normal functions, any excess food is stored as subcutaneous fat under the skin. Sometimes this adipose tissue will be stored in the thighs and stomach, causing lumpy patches. The body also stores fats around our vital organs to help protect them from outside impacts or any sudden movements.

Maintain Proper Body Temperature

You can also find a thin fat layer located right underneath the skin. This layer of fat is designed to insulate the body, keeping heat inside and therefore helping us maintain the proper body temperature. In addition to insulating, this layer of fat can also protect the inner core from extreme temperature changes. That is because when our skin temperatures significantly drop, our fat deposits will generate and then release heat which helps increase the temperature.

Protect Your Body

The body also has a layer of fat that is surrounding major organs (including the brain and heart), nerves, tissues and bones and this is designed to act as a protective cushion. If for some reason you experience a sudden impact or even severe trauma, this layer of fat will absorb as much of the shock as it can so it can protect these essential organs and structures from being significantly damaged.

Hair and Skin

Fat also helps maintain healthy hair and skin. That is because it helps our bodies absorb increased amounts of vitamin A, vitamin D, vitamin E, and vitamin K through the bloodstream. That is why dry, flaky skin is a symptom of a deficiency in fatty acids. Subcutaneous fat (which is found just under the skin) not only helps round the skin but also helps insulate the body, regulating body temperature in the process.

OR
Define the following terms:
(a) Nutrition

In science and human medicine, nutrition is the science or practice of consuming and utilizing foods.

Nutrition is how food affects the health of the body. Food is essential—it provides vital nutrients for survival, and helps the body function and stay healthy.

Nutrition is about eating a healthy and balanced diet. The food we eat and drink contains nutrients that provide nutrition to keep us healthy. Understanding these nutrition terms may make it easier for us to make better food choices.

(b) Health

Health signifies the ability to deal with physical, biological, psychological, and social stress.

The World Health Organization (WHO) proposed a definition that aimed higher: linking health to well-being, in terms of “physical, mental, and social well-being, and not merely the absence of disease and infirmity”.

Being healthy is way more than just being physically fit or absence of diseases. We can recognize diseases only when we feel or see any symptoms. Many of the times we are good to do works and we think that we are fit or healthy but actually, we are not. Nowadays mental, physical and social illness is on top.

With nutrients, our surroundings & environment, physical activities, and self-satisfaction are also contributing to being healthy.

(c) Malnutrition

Malnutrition, in every form, presents significant threats to human health. Malnutrition includes both undernutrition and overweight.

Malnutrition is a condition that results from eating a diet in which one or more nutrients are either not enough or are too much such that the diet causes health problems.

Undernutrition:
Not enough nutrients or lack of nutrients in one’s body are called undernutrition or undernourishment.

Overnutrition:
While too much nutrients consumption caused overnutrition or the person considered as overweight.

(d) Obesity

Obesity is a complex disease involving an excessive amount of body fat. Obesity isn’t just a cosmetic concern. It is a medical problem that increases your risk of other diseases and health problems, such as heart disease, diabetes, high blood pressure and certain cancers.

(e) SDA

SDA is the effect food has in increasing the metabolic rate above the level found when fasting. Energy is needed to digest, absorb and metabolize the food we eat. Food intake stimulates the metabolism process leading to an increase in energy expenditure. This is known as the thermogenic effect of food or SDA. Proteins have maximum effect on SDA increasing the BMR by 30%while carbohydrates and fast show smaller increase.

Q.4. What is BMR and explain the factors affecting it.

The amount of energy required by the body for carrying out involuntary work and maintaining body temperature is known as the basal metabolic rate (BMR). The involuntary work includes the functioning of various organs and system which work continuously to keep the body processes going such as the heart and blood circulation, the kidneys and excretion. Approximately one-third of this energy is needed for these processes while the remaining two- thirds is utilized for maintenance of muscle tone.

Factors affecting the BMR

Body size
Heat is continuously lost through the skin. A tall well-built person has a greater skin surface area than a shorter or smaller person and loses more heat through the skin and hence has a higher BMR.

Body composition
The amount of muscle tissue and adipose or fatty tissue in the body affects the BMR. An athlete with well-built muscles and little body fat has a higher BMR than a non-athlete with more body fat of the same weight. The metabolic activity in muscle tissue or lean tissue is much more as compared to adipose or fatty tissue.

Age
During periods of rapid growth, the BMR increases by 15-20% because the growth hormone stimulates cell metabolism and new cells are formed. It is high during infancy, pre-school years, and puberty. During pregnancy and location, it rapidly increases once again. The BMR gradually decline with age at the rate of 2% for each decade after the age of 21 years.

Sex
The BMR is 10% higher in males as compared to females. The difference in BMR is attributed to a higher proportion of adipose tissue in females and hormonal variations between the sexes.

Fever
Fever increases the BMR by 7% for each degree Fahrenheit rise in body temperature. This is one of the reasons for the loss of weight during fever.

State of health
The BMR is low during starvation and malnutrition because of the reduction in muscle tissue. In diseases and conditions where catabolic processes are high such as cancers, tuberculosis, and burns, BMR is high.

Hormones
Disorders of the thyroid gland markedly influence the BMR. Hyperthyroidism, a condition of excessive production of thyroid hormone increases BMR, and hypothyroidism or decreased production of thyroid hormone decreases BMR.

Climate
BMR rises when the climate is cold to maintain normal body temperature. In very warm climates leading to profuse sweating, BMR may increase by trying to reduce body temperature.

Psychological tension
Worry and anxiety increase BMR.

OR
What are fibres? Give their significance in the diet alongwith dietary sources.

Dietary fiber is a type of carbohydrate that cannot be digested by our bodies’ enzymes. It is found in edible plant foods such as cereals, fruits, vegetables, dried peas, nuts, lentils, and grains. Fiber is grouped by its physical properties and is called soluble, insoluble or resistant starch. All three types of fiber have important roles to play.

Significance of Dietary fiber

Fiber helps to keep our digestive system healthy and helps to prevent constipation. For example, fiber bulks up stools, make stools softer and easier to pass and make the waste move through the digestive tract more quickly.

Cardiovascular disease (heart disease and stroke) and type 2 diabetes:
Foods such as oats and barley contain a type of fiber known as beta-glucan, which may help to reduce cholesterol levels if you consume 3g or more of it daily, as part of a healthy diet.

Research has increasingly shown how important the bacteria in our gut may be to our health, and it has been suggested that a fiber-rich diet can help increase the good bacteria in the gut. Some fiber types provide a food source for ‘friendly’ gut bacteria helping them to increase and produce substances that are thought to be protective such as short-chain fatty acids.

Dietary fiber play role in energy intake control and reduced risk for the development of obesity. The role of dietary fiber in energy intake regulation and obesity development is related to its unique physical and chemical properties that aid in early signals of satiation and enhanced or prolonged signals of satiety.

Functions	Benifits
Adds bulk to the diet, making feel full faster	May reduce appetite
Attracts water and turns to gel during digestion, trapping carbohydrates and slowing absorption of glucose	Lowers variance in blood sugar levels
Lowers total and LDL cholesterol	Reduces risk of heart disease
Regulates blood pressure	May reduce onset risk or symptoms of metabolic syndrome and diabetes
Speeds the passage of foods through the digestive system	Facilitates regularity
Adds bulk to stool	Alleviates constipation
Balances intestinal pH and stimulates intestinal fermentation production of short-chain fatty acids	May reduce risk of colorectal cancers

Sources of Dietary Fiber

Fiber-rich foods include:
Wholegrain breakfast cereals, wholewheat pasta, wholegrain bread and oats, barley and rye
Fruit such as berries, pears, melon and oranges
Vegetables such as broccoli, carrots, and sweetcorn
Peas, beans, and pulses
Nuts and seeds
Potatoes with skin

Fiber Intake

Age (years)	Recommended intake of fibre
2-5	15g per day
5-11	20g per day
11-16	25g per day
17 and over	30g per day

Q.5. Classify vitamins and explain the functions and sources of Vitamin D and C

Vitamins are organic molecules that are essential for normal health and growth. They are required in trace amounts and must be obtained from the diet because they are not synthesized in the body.

• Organic molecules with a wide variety of functions.
• Cofactors for enzymatic reactions

Before vitamins were discovered, it was known that lime juice prevented the disease scurvy in sailors and that cod liver oil could prevent rickets. In 1912, scientists found that, in addition to carbohydrates, fats, and proteins, certain other factors called vitamins must be obtained from the diet.

Ascorbic Acid (vitamin C)

• Function: Foods rich in vitamin C may lower the risk for some cancers, including those of the mouth, esophagus, stomach, and breast. Long-term use of supplemental vitamin C may protect against cataracts. It helps to make collagen, a connective tissue that knits together wounds and supports blood vessel walls. It also helps to make the neurotransmitters serotonin and norepinephrine Acts as an antioxidant, neutralizing unstable molecules that can damage cells. Bolsters the immune system.
• Food Sources: Fruits and fruit juices (especially citrus), potatoes, broccoli, bell peppers, spinach, strawberries, tomatoes, Brussels sprouts
• Deficiency: Vitamin C deficiency called Scurvy.
  Excess of Vitamin C can cause Diarrhea, Nausea, Vomiting.

Calciferol (vitamin D)

• Function: It helps to maintain normal blood levels of calcium and phosphorus, which strengthens bones. It helps in the formation of teeth and bones. Supplements can reduce the number of non-spinal fractures.
• Food Sources: Fortified milk or margarine, fortified cereals, fatty fish
• Deficiency: Deficiency can result in weakened bones.

Q.6. What are nutrients? Classify them.

Nutrients are compounds in foods essential to life and health, providing us with energy, the building blocks for repair and growth and substances necessary to regulate chemical processes.

Classification of Nutrients

Based on requirements by body nutrients are classified into two categories:

• Macronutrients
• Micronutrient

Both are equally important for good health. The amount needed to ensure good health varies from individual to individual depending on their age, gender, body size, activity and state of health. ICMR gives the RDA for Indians.

Macronutrients

Macronutrients are consumed in relatively large amounts, macronutrients are used primarily to generate energy or to incorporate into tissues for growth and repair.

Macronutrients:
Carbohydrates: pasta, rice, cereals, bread, potatoes, milk, fruit, sugar
Proteins: meat, dairy, legumes, nuts, seafood, and eggs
Fats: oils, butter, margarine, nuts, seeds, avocados and olives, meat and seafood
Water: An adult needs about 2–3 liters of water each day.

Micronutrients

Micronutrients are needed in smaller amounts they have subtle biochemical and physiological roles in cellular processes, like vascular functions or nerve conduction.

Micronutrients:

Dietary minerals

Minerals are the substances that people need to ensure the health and correct working of their soft tissues, fluids, and their skeleton.
Examples of minerals include calcium, iron, iodine, fluorine, phosphorus, potassium, zinc, selenium, and sodium.

Vitamins

Vitamins are also called protective foods.

Vitamins are further classified into two groups:
Fat-soluble vitamins: vitamins A, D, E, and K are soluble in fats and fat solvents. They are insoluble in water. So these are utilized only if there is enough fat in the body.
Water-soluble vitamins: vitamins B and C, and folic acid are soluble in water and so they cannot be stored in the body.

Q.7. What is balanced diet? Classify foods into various groups.

When the diet can meet all the needs of an individual and also it provides an extra allowance for minor stresses and strains, the individual is said to be in a state of optimum nutrition.

Optimum Nutrition:
Optimum Nutrition is also known as adequate nutrition or good nutrition.

Good Nutrition:
Good Nutrition thus provides all essential nutrients in correct balance which are further utilized to promote the highest level of physical and mental health. Such a state of nutrition can be attained through balanced diets.

Balanced Diet:
Balanced Diet can be defined as one which contains different types of foods (from all food group) in such quantities and proportions that needs for all the nutrients are adequately met and a small extra allowance is made as a margin of safety.

Safety Margin:
Safety Margin is taken into account due to individual variations, losses during cooking and processing and also minor illnesses.
Thus a balanced diet along with the inclusion of various food groups focuses on the RDA for various nutrients.

RDA:
RDA is defined as the estimates of intakes nutrients which individuals in a population group need to consume to ensure that the physiological needs of all subjects in that population are met.
RDA varies with age, sex, physiological state, etc.

Three Food Group System:

1. energy giving food,
2. bodybuilding food,
3. protective foods

Five Food Group System:

1. cereals and grain products,
2. pulses or legumes,
3. milk, egg, and flesh
4. fruits and vegetables
5. fats and sugars

Q.8. Explain the concept of RDA and the factors that influence it

RDA is defined as the estimates of intakes nutrients which individuals in a population group need to consume to ensure that the physiological needs of all subjects in that population are met.
RDA varies with age, sex, physiological state, etc.

Factors affecting RDA

This nutritional requirement is influenced by :

1. age
2. growth
3. gender
4. pregnancy
5. breastfeeding
6. illness
7. psychological and emotional stress
8. activity level
9. smoking
10. drinking.

Q.9. (a) Name the conditions that lead to obesity.

Common specific causes of obesity include:

• genetics, which can affect how your body processes food into energy and how fat is stored
• growing older, which can lead to less muscle mass and a slower metabolic rate, making it easier to gain weight
• not sleeping enough, which can lead to hormonal changes that make you feel hungrier and crave certain high-calorie foods
• pregnancy, as weight gained during pregnancy may be difficult to lose and might eventually lead to obesity

(b) Explain factors affecting meal plan.

Many factors influence the acceptability of a meal. Customers select what appeals most to them from a menu card based on individual likes and dislikes, budget, the popularity of items, etc.

However, while planning meals the following factors need to be considered:

Nutritional Adequacy

The most important consideration in menu planning is to ensure that the meal fulfills the nutrient needs of the individual consuming the meal. For example, if the meal is planned for industrial workers, it must meet the RDAs for that age group. Foods from all basic food groups should be included in each meal so that the meal is balanced and nutritionally adequate. Nutrient needs may be modified for hospital diets (therapeutic diets).

Economic Considerations

The spending power of the clientele has to be kept in mind and meals have to be planned within the budget. Low-cost nutritious substitutes should be included in the menu to keep the costs low. The food cost should be maintained if the organization has to run profitably.

Food Service

Menus should be planned concerning the type of food service, whether it is a cafeteria, seated service, buffet, etc.

Equipment and Work Space

The menu should be planned, keeping the available equipment and workspace in mind. Deep freezers, refrigerators, grinders, dough kneaders, deep fat fryers, boilers, etc. should be adequate.

Leftover Food

An effective manager should consider as to how leftovers could be rotated to obtain maximum profit. Adequate storage space and hygienic standards should be ensured to minimize the risk of contamination and spoilage of food.

Food Habits

Food habits of the customer is another important criteria which need to be considered as food served has to be acceptable to the customer. Special attention should be paid when a particular type of community is catered to. Religious considerations should be known to the meal planner.

Availability

Some fruits and vegetables are seasonal. During the season the cost is reasonable and quality is better. Today, practically all fruits and vegetables are available throughout the year because of advanced preservation technology. However, seasonal fruits and vegetables should be given preference. Regional availability influences menu planning. For example, fish and seafood are fresh and cheaper in coastal areas.

Meal Frequency and Pattern

The meal timings and number of meals consumed in a day, whether meals are packed or served at the table, also influences the selection of food items on the menu. The age, activity level, physiological state, work schedule, and economic factors need to be known before planning meals for institutional catering.

Variety

This is one of the most important considerations while planning meals. A variety of foods from different food groups should be included.
The term variety means:

• Variety in food ingredients
• Variety in recipe
• Method of cooking
• Colour, texture, and flavour
• Variety in presentation and garnish.

Q.10. Fill in the blanks:

(a) Protein requirement of adults is 1 gm/kg of body weight (1/3/7).
(b) Loss of water and electrolyte leads to Dehydration (Dehydration/Rehydration/Obesity).
(c) Amino acids are the building blocks of proteins (Fatty acids/Amino acids/Gluclose).
(d) Night blindness is caused by deficiency of A (Vit. B/ E/ A).
(e) Niacin deficiency causes Pellagra (Beri- Beri/ Scurvy/ Pellagra).
(f) Each gramme of fat supplies 9 Kcal (4/6/9).
(g) Simple lipids are fats and OIls (Fats & oils/Amino acids & Proteins/ MUFA & PUFA).
(h) Lactose sugar is found in milk (Maltose/ Fructose/Lactose).
(i) Iodine deficiency leads to Goitre (Rickets/Goitre/Anaemia).
(j) Egg is called the reference protein (Meat/Milk/ Egg).